General policy and guidelines for cave and karst management in areas managed by the Department of Conservation
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In the past the approach to cave and karst management by land managers has been largely ad hoc and reactive. The purpose of these policy and management guidelines is to provide the basis for a nationally cohesive and pro-active approach to future policy development, management planning, in-situ cave and karst management, visitor and resource monitoring.
The guidelines in this document were written in 1987. They are designed to assist interpretation and implementation of the General Policy (Sec 2) which was jointly prepared by the Department of Lands and Survey and the New Zealand Forest Service in 1985. The policy has been endorsed by the respective Director-Generals, the National Parks and Reserves Authority, and the Land Settlement Board. The policy will apply to areas administered by the Department of Conservation. Other land administering bodies or agencies with responsibility for managing cave or karst areas will be encouraged to adopt the management practices outlined in this document.
Managers of cave and karst are advised to familiarise themselves with the literature listed in the Further Reading Section. Of particular importance is the recently available "Cave Area Management A Select Bibliography" (Draft) (Davey, 1987).
1.2 The Cave and Karst Resource
"Karst signifies terrain with distinctive characteristics of relief and drainage primarily arising from a higher degree of rock solubility in natural waters than found elsewhere" (Jennings 1971). Karst landscapes are varied and diverse in there nature. They are characterised by underground drainage and often contain sinkholes, cave entrances and springs. Surface features may include conical hills, enclosed depressions (dolines), towers, sharp ridges, pinnacles, tors, bluffs, grikes, gorges, arches, blind valleys, dry valleys, and outcrops with distinctive weathering patterns (karren).
Although karst landscapes are most commonly found in carbonate rocks such as limestone and marble (recrystallised or metamorphosed limestone), karst sometimes occurs in other rock types. In addition, karst-like landforms of different origins, and often collectively known as psuedokarst, may occur in other rocks, e.g. volcanic lavas.
The three main cavernous karst areas of New Zealand are the Waitomo Region, North-West Nelson, and the West Coast of the South Island between Karamea and Punakaiki (Buller).
Karst landforms range from extensive areas such as the lowland karst of the Paparoa syncline and the subalpine glacio-karst massifs of N.W, Nelson, through to remnant limestone outcropping in scattered reserves. Caves which occur within these areas range from deep and extensive systems such as Nettlebed (North-West Nelson), 867m deep and 24.2km long, and Aurora (Fiordland National Park), 8km long, to short impenetrable caves and overhanging rock shelters.
The annotated listing of karst and caves by protected natural areas, ecological regions and districts in Appendix 3 illustrates the national importance of this resource. The following table is based on data from the Protected Natural Areas Register (Lands and Survey, 1984). It shows the karst and cave resource within the Department of Conservation's national estate.
| CLASSIFICATION | KARST/CAVES CARBONATE ROCKS | CAVES |
| National Parks | 3 | 4 |
| Ecological Areas | 5 | 4 |
| Forest Parks | 3 | 1 |
| Reserves (1977 Act) | 84 | 28 |
| State Forests (Stewardship) | 8 | 6 |
(After Wilde, 1985 and 1986)
NB: The PNA Register only records the basic geology so it is not always possible to determine whether the limestones/marbles (carbonate rocks) are karstified. Therefore additional sources were used to compile the above table (See Appendix 3). Further fieldwork and research is required to establish a definitive inventory.
1.3 Scientific Values
The variety of landforms associated with karst have already been briefly discussed (1.1). The preservation of such features is of value to science for understanding geomorphological processes. Also the biological characteristics exhibited by karst may differ greatly from other landforms.
Although karst areas are normally associated with rapid drainage and high calcium availability, local areas of impeded drainage with swamp or peat development often occur, and some soils on karst can remain acid and low in fertility. Karst therefore often contains a diversity of habitats with species-rich flora. Some plants such as calcicolous species, as well as some invertebrates (mainly snails), are restricted to limestone and/marble, and such areas are therefore of interest scientifically. The different soil water/fertility regimes pertaining to karst in comparison to non-karst areas are seen not only in the presence or absence of species, but also in their effects on the competitiveness of different species. Many karst areas feature associations, e.g. forest types, which are not found elsewhere.
Karst landforms and features, including caves, are products of the interaction between geological processes and the external environment. Cave development is partly controlled by, and therefore reflective of, the structure and features of the parent rock and progressive geomorphological processes. Cave systems are therefore natural repositories of geological history. The structure and form of caves can be related to such phenomena as past sea levels and/or the development of major valley systems. Ages for these phenomena have been provided by dating cave speleothems (cave formations). The ages and structure of speleothems have also been used to interpret past predominant climatic conditions.
Caves contain many types of minerals, from ubiquitous calcite (the common form of calcium carbonate, and the major mineral in most common speleothems) to rare and obscure forms seldom found in nature. The form of speleothems range widely depending on the form and shape of minerals present and the mechanical (physical) processes influencing their growth.
The limestone or marble in which most caves are formed are fossiliferous in origin. Thus cave development has often exposed fine examples of fossils which would otherwise have been deeply buried. Recent finds in New Zealand have included subfossil bones, particularly of birds, amphibians and reptiles, are commonly found in caves. Flightless bird species, such as moa, kiwi and kakapo, being particularly prone to falling into vertical shafts, feature predominantly in cave deposits. Amphibian and reptile remains include extinct species of frogs, geckos and skinks; and tuatara from mainland sites where they are now extinct.
The relatively high calcium content and constant climatic conditions of caves make them ideal repositories for the long term preservation of vertebrate bones. Honeycomb Hill Cave in the Oparara Valley, Karamea has one of the richest subfossil bone sites in New Zealand, and is considered to be of international scientific significance.
Many caves also contain subfossil insect and snail remains, which have often been found to be of previously unknown species, or species that are no longer extant within that area.
Various living creatures, mainly invertebrates, are also found in caves. The cave inhabitants of special interest to speleology (cave science) are those which are totally adapted to life in caves, the troglobites. These species are typified by distinctive adaptations to the cave environment of constant and absolute darkness, high humidity, and relatively constant temperature. Morphological features displayed by troglobites include the attenuation of limbs and antennae, the presence of long sensory hairs on the body, and loss or extreme reduction of body pigments and eyes.
The New Zealand cave community is predominantly dependent on energy (i.e. food) inputs from the surface, which are transported to the deep cave zone irregularly, and usually in small quantities. Thus cave ecosystems are characterised by very low biomass. Troglobitic invertebrate communities therefore comprise very few species, and low population numbers within each species.
Cave infill deposits, especially those on the floor, are often of considerable scientific importance. They are the feature most vulnerable to human disturbance. They provide an important habitat for cave fauna as well as food for some groups. Sediments often contain layers of subfossil deposits which reflect past biological history. Sediments may contain pollen which allow description of the vegetation history of an area.
Of particular significance to the management of caves and karst features such as arches, are the little known plant assemblages within entrances and the twilight zone- This is the zone between the cave entrance, where incident light is first noticeably reduced, and the point of furthest penetration of light. This area has a flora composed of local surface species that exhibit varying degrees of shade tolerance, and associated tolerance to, or preference for, relatively high moisture levels. Occasionally these entrance areas support populations of plant species with a very localised distribution. The entrance-twilight zone flora may include woody species, herbs, ferns, mosses, liverworts and algae, with distinct zonations determined by the degree of available light.
The scientific values covered in this brief introduction represent only some of the fields of research in speleology. All physical and biological sciences have relevance to caves and karst, including such fields as physics, chemistry, hydrology, meteorology, and biogeography. Because of recent advances in dating techniques and the fact that caves are reference points for events in earth history, it is envisaged that in the next decade caves and karst will assume a much greater importance to science.
1.4 Cultural, Educational arid Recreational Values
The Maori cultural values of caves include their use for burials, shelter, and rock art. Caves sometimes feature in Maori tradition, legends and mythology. That the Maori seldom or never explored beyond the twilight zone is attributed to their belief in taniwha.
Maori use of caves is a sensitive issue. The absence of an in-depth description of the Maori perception is deliberate. This document is not the right forum to ascertain Maori concerns, which at any rate will be given different emphasis in different areas. Managers are advised to use their established contacts to discuss management issues with local iwi, hapu or whanau.
Caves and karst are of significant educational value in respect of landform development, natural processes, earth sciences, biology, hydrology, archaeology, anthropology, culture and history. Recreationally, they have special value for personal development in terms of physical skills, confidence, achievement, team work and personal fitness.
Today, recreational caving is rapidly increasing in popularity. People from tertiary institutions, schools, scouting groups, youth clubs, adventure tourism and outdoor pursuit organisations, are amongst those involved. The largest collective group of recreational cave users is the 12 member groups/clubs of the New Zealand Speleological Society (Inc). The Society, with a membership of about 350, is also concerned with cave science, research and conservation. The NZSS has played a significant role in developing caving ethics, conservation awareness and promoting the need for appropriate management.
Wood (1983) argues that caves can provide wilderness experience for recreationists. He defines cave wilderness as follows;
"Wilderness is an area that can provide people with wilderness experience. The primary purpose of wilderness is recreational and cultural with ecological values important, but secondary.
Wilderness experience consists of feelings of freedom, beauty, empathy with wild nature and of remoteness from the ordinary works of [people]".
Wood intends this definition to recognise the relationship between resource and user, to be applicable to a wide spectrum of caves and users and to "accommodate and yet minimise the damage and modification inevitable with recreational use".
The wilderness values of a cave include such things as its "wildness", beauty, grandeur, feeling of remoteness, the amount of physical effort required to traverse it etc, in relation to the likely user groups.
The importance of this relationship is in the change of perception which comes with experience and familiarity. What seems common place to the experienced caver may provide wilderness experience to the newcomer. Thus wilderness value is a subjective rather than a quantitative value.
Obvious signs of excessive wear and damage may remove all feeling of wilderness value for even the most inexperienced of users. Wilderness, like other cave values, needs to be managed for.
Tourism in such caves as Waitomo Glow-worm Cave and Te Ana-Au Cave represents a significant international and national resource. The Waitomo Glow-worm Cave features as one of the top ten New Zealand tourist destinations, and commercial adventure caving is rapidly increasing in popularity.
"The essence of caving lies in the doing, in the mystery and awe of the underground, arid the sense of a special relationship wit the earth. The experience of caving can be shared by explorer, scientist and sightseer alike" (Hoeman, 1980)
1.5 The Necessity for Cave and Karst Management
New Zealand's cave and karst resource is a physical, biological, scientific, recreational, cultural, educational and socio-economic resource of national and international signficance. Extensive areas of karst and caves occur in protected natural areas administered by this department (see Appendix 3). The values of karst ecosystems and caves, combined with their vulnerability, and the potential harm land managers and recreational user groups can cause, mean that sensitive and informed management is required.
Relatively little is known about inter-relationships of biological and physical characteristics of cave or karst areas by either the general scientific community, or by those responsible for the management of the land around them. In particular there is a lack of awareness of the close interrelationship between caves and the surface environment. An unfortunate consequence of this lack of knowledge is that many caves and karst landforms are threatened by unsympathetic management of the areas containing them. Extractive industries, inappropriate management of the surface catchment, and thoughtless visitors are common causes of damage.
For example, uncontrolled development within a karst catchment can cause irreversible damage to cave environments due to increased siltation and detritus build-up in stream ways. The uncontrolled recreational use of caves by large and/or inexperienced groups can cause permanent destruction to fragile speleothems, fossil or subfossil remains, or the habitats of specialised cave fauna, and entrance twilight flora. Such uninformed land management and recreational use reduces the scientific, cultural and recreational values of caves.
The concept of a "carrying capacity" - in part, the level of use from which the environment is able to recover or regenerate - is implicit in outdoor recreation management. While this concept can be applied to above-ground karst area management, it is largely irrelevant to caves.
The physical nature of caves is such that all visitation is likely to result in some degree of change (i.e. damage). In most cases change will be long-term rather than short-term in nature. For example, physical damage to water-sculpted rock walls or to fossil deposits is permanent; destruction of speleothems is either permanent or repairable only over hundreds or thousands of years. Compaction of floor sediments may be permanent and may have permanent effects on cave biota etc. Caves, therefore, have no physical carrying capacity i.e. they have no short-term and very little long-term potential to regenerate damaged features (see Wood, 1983 and 1985). The resources within caves which are subject to the greatest damage are essentially non-renewable.
This lack of understanding of the fragile nature of cave and karst ecosystems and their associated features must be remedied if their scientific, scenic, recreational, educational, cultural and economic values are to be maintained.
The challenge for management agencies responsible for cave and karst resources is to develop management plans and strategies which are sympathetic to the sensitive nature of the resource; to monitor and evaluate the success of these strategies; to monitor damage or modification and determine the level or rate of modification that can be regarded as acceptable and to manage the land in such a way that the greatest possible protection is accorded.
2.0 GENERAL POLICY FOR CAVE AND KARST MANAGEMENT
2.1 Application of the Policy
The following policy (previously endorsed by the National Parks and Reserves Authority, the Land Settlement Board and the Directors-General of Lands and Forests) will apply to areas administered by the Department of Conservation. Other land-administering bodies or agencies with responsibilities for administering caves or karst areas will be encouraged to adopt this or a similar policy to ensure the protection of important cave and karst features.
2.2 Goals and Objectives
- Corporate Goals
- To protect the intrinsic and cultural values of the country's natural and historic resources.
- To promote enjoyment by the public and to provide for sensitive use of the natural and historic resources entrusted to the Department's care.
- To promote public understanding of and foster support for the protection of natural and historic heritage of New Zealand.
- Specific Goals
- To maintain natural ecological processes and the natural scenery of cave and karst areas.
- To engender an awareness by the general public of the scientific, scenic, cultural and recreational significance of karst and cave resources.
- Objectives
- Ensure that land owners and administering bodies are aware of the consequences of actions they may take which could effect the cave and karst resource.
- Formulate detailed management policies and guidelines for areas containing caves that will embrace the natural, cultural and scientific values of these features, and which will provide for a suitable level of use or development.
2.3 General Policies
- An access classification system will be applied to cave and karst
features, as one element of the process of management of areas to which
this policy applies.
While the Department of Conservation, as the agency responsible for management, is reluctant to restrict access, it realises that any human traffic in caves will cause some modification to their natural features and that this can range from imperceptible accumulative changes to serious damage.
The system contains three classifications, based on levels and types of use. These will be determined for karst areas and caves following a consideration of their characteristics and features, relative to regional and national values; protection priorities; and the risk of unacceptable damage to the features.
In order to classify the resource appropriately, use will be made of the inventory of geological and geomorphological features of national and regional importance being compiled by the New Zealand Geological Society, and the New Zealand Karst Index (NZSS). Where possible, the compilation of these inventories will be assisted.
The NZSS and any local caving clubs or groups will be consulted about application of the classification system. The access classification of features in an area containing caves or karst will be recorded in, or appended to, the management plan for that area at the earliest opportunity.
In all situations where a limitation of access or control on use is considered necessary for a particular karst area, cave or passage, the minimum level of restriction will be applied to achieve the necessary protection. Recreational user groups will be encouraged to adopt the NZSS Ethical Guidelines (see Appendix 1).
- Supporting research proposals involving caves, karst or related topics, will be considered. While those projects which have a direct relevance to land management activities will be given a higher priority for support, others will also be considered.
- Until now, the general public's lack of knowledge about cave features and locations has been one of the most effective means of protection from damage. In presenting information about cave features in management plans for example, discretion will be exercised, particularly when the locations of such features are not readily known.
- Where changes in land use are contemplated by the Department, the
Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures (1981) will be applied
if such changes appear to threaten the integrity of karst landforms, hydrology,
caves or cave systems.
Many cave systems on land administered by the Department may have part of their water supply catchment beyond the Department's land boundary. If so, the adjacent land owners should be encouraged to follow management practices that are consistent with, and complement, the Department's own management strategy.
If there is any doubt about the need to invoke the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures (1981), advice should be sought (see Appendix 4). One possible source of help may be the local catchment authority, although in practice authorities vary greatly in their knowledge and understanding of karst hydrology. Those with a history of involvement in karst hydrology problems, such as the Waikato Catchment Board, have considerable expense on which to draw.
2.4 Explanation
- A classification system allowing for control of access does not constitute a comprehensive management regime for karst and cave features. The classification scheme is intended to serve the management function of allowing for the regulation of access to these resources, and will apply where such regulation is considered vital to the continuing integrity of important values. Detailed management policies for caves and karst areas should be formulated in response to the particular values and circumstances of the resources being considered. During management planning for an area containing caves or karst features, recognition will need to be given to the local, regional and national importance of these features, not only in the determination of access classification, but also for other management strategies.
- Much remains to be discovered about caves and karst resources. The agencies involved in funding research on such features are primarily interested in the applicability of research findings to management. A responsibility for pure science, or generation of knowledge for its own sake is acknowledged however and detailed consideration will be given to all relevant research proposals.
- It is not intended to obstruct people's access to information concerning cave and karst features. However, careless publication of information about the location of caves may lead to the inexperienced and perhaps unsympathetic public visiting caves and causing damage to their features either accidentally or deliberately. For this reason, and in the interests of public safety, care will be exercised over the publication of the locations of caves. Casual enquiries for information of this nature from non-caving people should be referred to local caving clubs or groups, as the best agencies for introducing novices to this sport. Caving is an experience not available to everyone. Every opportunity should be taken to increase awareness of both the general public and visitors, of the nature of the cave and karst resource through various interpretation methods. Opportunity exists to provide a range of interpretation techniques, from pamphlets through to displays and audio visuals, which capture the caving experience and convey the NZSS 'Ethical Guidelines'.
- Caves are not dead, static environments. Wherever cave streams
flow through caves the solution and erosion processes that initially formed
the cave still continue, albeit slowly. Groundwater percolating from land
above the cave can either enhance and build speleothems or stain, muddy
and destroy them depending on the clarity and chemistry of the water.
Any modification of surface catchment(s) such as removal of vegetation cover, changes in farming practices, roading, water flows or diversions, can have a dramatic and irreversible effect on the caves and cave fauna below. Dirty, mud stained and crumbling speleothems, mud coated cave walls and mud filled stream passages are often the result of increased soil erosion in the catchment above.
Pollution of caves with industrial wastes, sewage, dairy shed effluent, farm and domestic rubbish, petrol, diesel and agricultural chemicals can also cause irreversible damage to caves and their fauna. Cave systems have little or no filtering effect on dirty water. Therefore springs, often assumed to be a source of clean water, can easily become contaminated if wastes find a route into the cave system at any point upstream of the spring.
2.5 Classification System for Public Use
Cavernous karst areas, caves or passages within caves may be classified open, limited, restricted or tourist access using criteria outlined below:
2.5.1 Open Access
This is appropriate where features may not be of high scientific interest but of scenic, educational or recreational value, and can withstand intensive visitor use. Open to all user groups with no restrictions except those needed for safety and basic rules for the respect of the resource. Note that this category can include karst areas/caves with features of high scientific interest which are not vulnerable to damage by general recreational use.
2.5.2 Limited Access
This is appropriate where limited or controlled recreational use will not cause an unacceptable level of damage to the ecosystem or geological or other features being protected. Access may be controlled by permit or other forms of consent mechanism by which party numbers, frequency of use, type of activity and any special conditions may be specified.
This category may include potential "Limited or Restricted Access" situations for newly-discovered caves or passages. However, it is desirable that such an interim classification does not apply for longer than twelve months.
2.5.3 Restricted Access
This is appropriate where there are specific habitat requirements for rare or endangered species or where there are features of high scientific importance, or which are unique or of outstanding aesthetic value and at risk. Access will be controlled by permits or other means of consent which will be issued for approved purposes.
This will be used only where the features are vulnerable to uncontrolled recreational use and are considered so important or outstanding that no damage can be tolerated. Restricted Access caves or cave passages may be secured against unauthorised entry. "Limited" and "Restricted" categories may include potential "tourist access" caves.
2.5.4 Tourist Access
This is appropriate where caves are fully developed for guided visits by the general public. Charges for admission may be fixed and the times of admission regulated.
2.6 Application of Classification System
This classification system will operate in three situations:
- the cavernous karst area
- the individual cave
- the cave passage
Karst and cavernous areas administered by the Department of Conservation and the Crown will normally be zoned "Open". "Restricted Access" and "Limited Access" classifications are based on special requirements for management for the protection of habitats for rare or endangered species, outstanding aesthetic values of caves, or ecologically sensitive environments such as special purpose areas and sanctuaries.
However, individual caves and/or cave passages within "Open" karst and cavernous areas, for reasons of their scientific importance or to protect their features, may require control to be exercised by classification as "Restricted Access" or "Limited Access" caves and/or passages.
Access to cavernous or karst areas and caves or cave passages may be controlled under statutory provision, by bylaws or by the way in which they are managed.
2.7 Criteria for Classification of Caves and/or Cave Passages
Caves are amongst the most sensitive and fragile of all known environments. Most damage is essentially irreversible. The following criteria will be taken into consideration when classifying caves and/or cave passages (For comprehensive guidelines see Journal of Australian Cave Research, "Helictite" - Volume 15(2) 1984 Davey AG "The Evaluation Criteria for the Cave and Karst Heritage of Australasia")
2.7.1 Site Significance
International, national, regional or local significance. Determined by the sum of all other values.
2.7.2 Scientific and Educational Values
Flora, fauna and habitat, archaeological, fossil and subfossil deposits, and speleothems and cave minerals.
2.7.3 Cultural Values
Particularly features of significance to tangata whenua.
2.7.4 Historic Values
Features of relevance to the human history of New Zealand.
2.7.5 Aesthetic Values
Cave decorations (formations/speleothems) and overall scenic qualities.
2.7.6 Wilderness Values
The degree to which a cave or cave passage can provide wilderness experience to likely or intended user groups.
2.7.7 Vulnerability
The relationship of the above values to the degree of fragility and their potential exposure to damage by types and levels of use.
2.8 User Groups
When classifying caves and/or cave passages, in addition to the criteria listed in 2.7, regard should be given to the types and levels of existing or likely use and the nature of the user groups. They have different levels of awareness. Cave experiences should be developed with this in mind.
2.8.1 Recreational Cavers/Speleologists
People for whom caving is a major recreational interest, and who are equipped for and skilled in cave exploration. These people generally belong to the NZSS and/or caving groups or clubs.
2.8.2 Outdoor Pursuit Organisations
People who participate in caving as one among many outdoor recreational pursuits, under the leadership of others with the appropriate equipment and expertise.
2.8.3 'Adventure' or Concessionaire 'Wild' Caving
Includes people who participate in a recreational caving experience for a fee. They are usually well equipped and are led by professional, experienced guides. Potential exists for severe damage to the cave environment if operations are not properly controlled and monitored.
2.8.4 Cave Tourists
People who aquire a 'passive' experience in caves fully developed and modified for tourism. Participants pay a fee for access and guiding. See also 4.3 "Visitor Use".
2.8.5 Other Groups and Individuals
People who belong to groups such as scouts, schools, youth organisations etc, and unaffiliated individuals who generally participate in caving on an irregular basis. These groups and individuals may not be well equipped and may lack caving skills and cave conservation awareness. Often such groups go caving in large numbers.
2.9 Consent Mechanisms
Consent to enter areas classified as "Limited Access" or "Restricted Access" should be sought from the nearest office of the Department. Permits or other written means of consent (see Appendix 2) should stipulate any requirements considered necessary for environmental protection: numbers in a party; status of members and leadership requirements (e.g. card holders of the New Zealand Speleological Society); specified routes; removal of boots in certain areas; method of disposal of carbide and other pollutants (e.g. waste food); use of battery operated personal lighting for environmental reasons; and any other requirements as may be considered necessary for maintaining the environmental integrity of the cave or karst area. If warranted, written consent will only be released personally to the leader of the party or an acceptable deputy.
3.0 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL
3.1 Resource Information
The Protected Natural Areas Programme, the Biological Resources Centre, the New Zealand Geological Society's Inventory and Assessment of Geological and Geomorphological Features of National and Regional Significance, and the New Zealand Karst Index (NZSS) should be used as resource information for cave and karst management at the national level. Information should also be sought from DSIR (Land and Soil Science and Water Science Divisions), local tertiary institutions, the New Zealand Speleological Society and local caving groups and clubs.
3.2 Planning and Establishment of Protected Natural Areas for Cave and Karst
Consideration should be given to the following criteria for assessing the significance of site when establishing protected natural areas for caves and karst:
- degree of representativeness of existing protected natural areas containing karst and caves
- geographical and environmental location geological and physical values, characteristics, and form (and, in the case of cave speleothems type, form and mineralisation)
- hydrological values and characteristics
- biological values and characteristics (including vegetation, flora and fauna)
- overall scientific values (including subfossil deposits etc)
- cultural values
- aesthetic (scenic) values educational values
- recreational values
- tourism values
3.3 Protected Natural Area Design
To preserve caves and karst it is desirable, where possible or practicable, to include the entire catchment in the Protected Natural Area (PNA). In cases where the cave drains, or crosses under more than one surface catchment, the whole of these catchment(s) should also be protected. A whole ecosystem approach to the protection of cave and karst features is recommended i.e. protection of complete karst ecosystems with intact surface vegetation, soils and drainage system.
If the whole ecosystem approach cannot be achieved, the next best option is to ensure that adequate riparian strips are established in catchments, and, or a buffer zone of at least 200m is created around the karst area or the area containing the cave, cave passages and entrances.
In the case of caves and karst on farmland, the above criterion can seldom be fulfilled. However, areas of pasture can be included in the PNA where necessary (e.g. to protect from quarrying or for individual karst features and caves etc) and status quo grazing maintained.
A catchment plan of management may be required in order to protect caves and karst from the impacts of soil erosion, surface and groundwater pollution and unstable, highly variable hydrological inputs. When deciding on the extent and nature of protective measures, it may be necessary to identify the likely impacts of alternative land uses on those specific values or features for which the cave is being protected. The area is then managed accordingly, rather than an attempt made to treat the entire cave as pristine.
3.4 Ownership of Caves
Legal definition and ownership of surface karst features/areas is established by conventional survey and title registration. In these cases, all surface features fall within the title of the surveyed area. However, in respect of subsurface and subterranean features (i.e. caves) this is not so apparent.
Legal ownership is broadly based on the old common law doctrine 'Cujus est coelum ejus est usque ad coelum et ad inferos' (whose is the soil, theirs is also that which is above it and below it), so legal definition is still achieved by defining the area on the surface. However, the above doctrine has some exceptions, particularly in relation to statutes reserving mineral rights of private land to the Crown.
Thus the ownership of caves (or more precisely the walls thereof) generally will be by whoever owns the soil above and around them. A surface survey of the land under which a cave is located is acceptable to District Land Registrars for the purpose of registration of the title (Thode, 1982).
It is imperative that an accurate cave survey be undertaken before a reserve is established over a cave. The British Cave Research Association Grade 5 Survey (a system adopted by the NZSS) has been shown to be accurate enough for this purpose. An accurate cave survey will ensure that adequate attention has been given to the location of entrances and the extent of passages.
3.5 Acquisition, Statutes and Classification of Protected Natural Areas for Caves and Karst
The same statutes, classifications and procedures used for the acquisition and classification of protected natural areas, apply to the cave and karst resource. It is desirable to acquire title to nationally and regionally important caves and karst areas where possible.
Where owners are willing to protect the resource but not willing to lose title, use of the covenant provisions of the Queen Elizabeth II Trust Act, 1977 or Reserves Act, 1977 or Conservation Act, 1987, is appropriate. Reservation can either take place through the National Trust or the Department of Conservation. Several caves and karst areas have been protected in this way. Similarly in the case of Maori land, the Maori Affairs Act 1953 is the preferred means of protection. The Historic Places Act 1980 could be evoked to protect Maori traditional sites.
4.0 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES AT THE INDIVIDUAL KARST AND CAVERNOUS AREA LEVEL
4.1 Introduction
The following describes management approaches and techniques related to individual karst and cavernous areas and caves. Each karst and cavernous area or cave will present different and possibly unique management problems. Therefore the following guidelines are not absolute, except in the application of the classification system.
4.2 Operation of the Access Classification System
Ideally any newly discovered karst area, cave or cave passage should be briefly assessed for significant values. If significant values are believed to exist they should be further assessed by seeking experienced advice. if there is any suggestion that the feature(s) may require some restriction on access, an interim 'Limited Access' or in extreme cases 'Restricted Access' classification should be given while final assessment is carried out (it is desirable that interim classifications be applied for not more than twelve months, i.e. that assessment of values and final classification be made in that time).
In accordance with the policy, interim and final classification would be made in consultation with the NZSS, local caving clubs and groups and tangata whenua (see 2.3(a) and Figure 1). It must be emphasised that classification must be made within the national and regional context, and not on a local or ad hoc basis. Management policies can then be prepared under the normal management planning process (it is not necessary under the policy to prepare management plans prior to classification. The classification system can be applied whilst plans are in preparation and carried over into the plan later).
It is envisaged that in most circumstances caves will not require further assessment beyond the initial one carried out by the original explorers or those that follow. After consultation with the New Zealand Speleological Society and local caving clubs and groups, caves will normally be classified as open, and recorded as such in the management plan.
Where it is apparent that there are features of significance to Maori, consultation should take place with the tangata whenua and/or trustees of the land in question. Where land managers are informed of, or discover, possible special or at risk values, they should consult further with the local caving group/club, and the NZSS. They should then arrange for a survey through a recognised expert and/or institution (see Figure 1).
The classification system provides for classification at the cavernous karst level, the individual cave level, and the within-cave passage level (see 2.5 and 2.6), 'file system therefore allows for the application of multiple classifications within any given cavernous karst area, cave, or cave passage. Figure 2 shows a hypothetical example of the application of the system incorporating classification at most levels.
Public use such as by education and youth groups. outdoor pursuit organisations, adventure or concession caving operations, should usually be confined to robust open access caves. The majority of open access caves, especially the predominantly horizontal systems, are liable to serious damage and downgrading by excessive recreational use, especially by large inexperienced parties. Caving clubs/groups belonging to the NZSS should be allowed access to both open and limited access caves, and in some cases restricted access caves. Where there are exceptionally high scientific values restricted access caves may be confined to scientific use only (See 4.4).
A specific or separate management plan will not normally be required for each karst or cavernous area or cave. In most cases, caves and karst will be included in the management plan for the particular protected natural area. However, where there is a complexity of values resulting in a range of classifications, and/or considerable in situ management is involved, a separate management plan should be considered, and appended to the overall management plan for the area.
Following classification, normal management planning procedures apply. After implementation of policy, classification, management planning and in-situ development, monitoring and evaluation should take place at regular intervals. If necessary, new policies and/or classification(s), and/or in situ management guidelines will be implemented with on-going monitoring and evaluation.
4.3 Visitor Use
The Department of Conservation expects bona fide cavers to be properly equipped.
Users of caves open to the general public should be advised to wear safety helmets, appropriate warm clothing, and suitable footwear (e.g. footwear with a good tread pattern), and to take at least two independent light sources each.
In a few limited situations, these recommendations may not necessarily be adhered to:
Specifically where a robust, safe cave of very limited extent has been developed for casual inspection by the general touring public and contains tracking, barriers, and signs where required. In such cases, ordinary clothing, footwear, and one torch may be considered adequate.
Those people seeking more knowledge on caves and recreational caving should be directed to the frass and/or local caving groups or clubs (see 2.4(c))
In a situation of uncontrolled use, most of the damage to cave values occurs during the first few visits. Cumulative damage rises rapidly at first, then eases off to a plateau (see Wood, 1983, 1985), often referred to as the "peak of damage". Subsequent increases in damage are sporadic and usually minor, unless intentional vandalism takes place. Ironically, having reached this state the cave's susceptibility to further damage is greatly decreased and it may even be considered to have a carrying capacity (see Section (1.5). Cave management should aim to minimise the impacts of visitor use on caves and their values.
Recreational cavers should be encouraged to restrict their party sizes to no more than 6-8 people in a cave at any one time, with fewer in caves/cave passages of greater vulnerability. In major cave systems, two or more parties of this size could be operating in separate parts of the cave. Larger parties are more likely to cause damage to speleothems etc, and large novice parties in particular are more difficult for party leaders to control effectively.
The use of battery lights should be encouraged and carbide lights discouraged. All carbide waste, rubbish and other pollutants should be removed.
'Adventure' or 'wild' caving concessionaires, youth and school groups, and outdoor education groups, should be directed to robust caves and/or caves which have reached their peak of damage (see Wood, 1983). Caves that have reached their peak of recreational damage are still regarded by many users as having aesthetically rewarding values (aesthetic quality relates directly to the individual's personal knowledge and perception of caves). when managing or developing cavernous karst areas for public use, the widest possible range of recreational opportunities should be made available. In general most caves will be zoned open access; but this does not mean that public access should be developed to such caves.
Where possible in any given area, one or two robust open access caves should be managed for general public inspection, and perhaps one or more for school and youth groups, adventure and concession caving. These caves should not be considered sacrificial. They should be managed as far as possible to preserve their integrity, and to take the pressure away from more sensitive caves in the area.
All open access, limited access, and in some cases restricted access caves and cave passages will be available, subject to management constraints and consent mechanisms, to the New Zealand Speleological Society, its member groups and clubs, and other bona fide cavers/speleologists (see 4.1).
Some experience overseas has shown that when the original discoverers/explorers are totally excluded, conflict may develop. Such conflicts have resulted in restriction on information from cavers/speleologists to the administering authority; lack of co-operation; and even destruction of gates.
All user groups should be encouraged to adopt the New Zealand Speleological Society's Ethical Guidelines (See 2.3(a) and Appendix 1.1). School groups should be referred to the Education Department's "Principal's Guide to Education Outside the Classroom - Leadership and Safety Guidelines for Adventure Activities - Caving" (Department of Education, 1986)
4.4 Scientific Access
Much of the cave and karst management outlined in this document is concerned with the protection/preservation of resources of scientific importance. This pre-supposes that bona fide researchers, amateur enthusiasts, and research institutions may be interested in these resources at some tune for scientific purposes. Departmental policies exist for the control of research undertaken in protected natural areas, and need not be detailed here.
However, the following points should be taken into account:
Details of proposed research projects should be submitted by individuals or institutions wishing to gain access to karst/cave material, to the Director Science and Research Directorate, Department of Conservation, PO Box 10-420, Wellington. Details are required of how much material they intend to remove and where it will ultimately be housed. It should be noted that ad hoc collecting from subfossil or fossil deposits can reduce, or in extreme cases completely destroy, the value of such deposits, without adding significantly to scientific knowledge. Also, excessive collecting of cave invertebrates especially troglobitic (obligate cave-dwelling) species, can greatly reduce and/or endanger entire cave populations (see 1.3);
There should be a requirement for a written report to be submitted on the work undertaken and the results of the research (an interim report at least) should be submitted within 12 months. Copies of all published material should be made available to the Department. The report should also detail where specimens are lodged and catalogued;
Bona fide researchers undertaking research in caves may not necessarily be experienced cavers/speleologists, and may be as prone as any member of the public to damaging aesthetic or other scientific values of which they are not aware (e.g. vulnerable speleothems). Important and vulnerable values of the caves(s) may need to be pointed out to researchers before they start work. Each individual research proposal must be considered on its merits, and in some cases leadership or guidance from experienced cavers or conservation staff may be warranted. These details should be specified in the permit.
4.5 Fossils
Caves, large or small, may contain fossil remains of various organisms either buried within sediments or lying on cave floors. Among invertebrates, snail shells are particularly common but insect remains occur frequently as well. Much more visible are vertebrate fossils. Because of New Zealand's unique fauna, bird bones are most frequently encountered, but frog, lizard and bat bones do occur. Fossil deposits within caves can be broadly classified according to their aesthetic (includes associated educational significance) and/or scientific value. To be classed as aesthetic, fossils have to be visible. This category therefore includes only those lying on, or exposed in, cave floors and walls. However aesthetic and scientific significance need not be directly correlated and often the small and inconspicuous, or buried fossils may be of far greater scientific significance than those larger bones found lying on the surface.
- In general, bone material lying on the surface should be left in situ unless it is vulnerable and at risk, or where the material is of such scientific importance that removal is justified. If left in situ fossils should be accurately marked with, for example, plastic tape. Vertebrate fossils classified as aesthetic would typically be bones of moas or 'articulated' skeletons the size of a weka or larger. It is possible that small lizards/frogs/birds if articulated skeletons, and not at risk, could be left in caves. In some cases (e.g. rare species) aesthetically significant fossils, or course, also have scientific significance.
- Consent to remove fossil material should be sought from the Director Science and Research Directorate.
- Approval for removal should only be given to individuals or organisations qualified to carry out such work and/or follow-up research. It is preferred that excavations be part of a planned scientific research programme. Retrieval of individual specimens may be justified because of their significance in supplementing the available reference collections.
- Fossil material removed from caves on the Department's estate will remain the property of the Crown. The National Museum of New Zealand is empowered under the 'National Art Gallery, Museum and War Memorial Act 1972' to act as a national repository for collections principally concerning New Zealand. Removal of fossils from caves on the crown estate is permitted only with the understanding that they ultimately become part of the National Museum collections. This does not preclude the possibility that once registered into the National Museum collection, the immediate repository may be a regional office or museum, if suitable facilities exist.
- The Department will discourage the private sale of fossils. At present fossils (including moa bones, etc), are protected by the Antiquities Act only so far as their export is prohibited, but their collection and sale within New Zealand is not prohibited. 'Fossil' bones are only protected more securely if found preserved in a cultural context. Archaeological sites and their contents are protected by the provisions of the Historic Places Act. If a market is allowed to develop the 'looting' of caves on the Department's estate will be inevitable.
5.0 GUIDELINES FOR IN SITU MANAGEMENT
To date, the only available detailed cave and karst management and in situ development plans, are the management plan (Rautjoki and Millar, 1984) and the recommendations for management (Wilde, 1984) for Honeycomb Hill Cave system and associated karst features at Oparara (North-West Nelson Forest Park). It is recommended that these be read.
This section is intended as a guide and is not an exhaustive statement. Individual managers should apply the same philosophy and high standards of in situ development (i.e. unobtrusive and low visual impact) to karst and caves as to other areas they administer.
Any change to caves is invariably permanent or extremely difficult to rectify. Management within cave and karst areas should proceed on the basis of modifying visitor use to suit the resource, rather than modifying the resource to suit visitor use.
All development should have regard to the sensitivity and fragility of the cave and karst environment. In particular facilities such as roads, carparks, buildings, toilets, rubbish disposal, or storage of chemicals and fuels, should be sited where no disruption or pollution of karst ground waters can occur. None of these facilities and services should be placed over caves. In high-use areas planned for tourist development, it is essential to know the extent of the caves and associated hydrological Systems before management planning and development proceeds. Catchment Authority or Science and Research Directorate advice may need to be sought before structures and facilities are placed.
The extent and nature of any proposed development should be weighed against the reduction of the psychological wilderness experience of users. where development is considered necessary, it should aim to be as low-key as practicable. Developments in actual or anticipated high use caves must provide for the safety of large numbers of people while minimising their physical and biological impacts on the cave and karst resource.
5.1 Signs
The location of a cave should not be signposted unless it is developed for general public use. In order not to attract unnecessary attention, signs for caves with restrictions on access should be discretely located at, or just outside, the cave entrances. These should state in brief general terms why controls are necessary, and where permits can be obtained.
Where there are no restrictions on access a discrete sign may be erected, stating in brief general terms, that caves are fragile (and where appropriate. dangerous) and visitors should take care.
Cave signs should be considered for fragile/vulnerable areas/features, removal of boots, route directions etc. Signs should be as discrete as possible, and should be either free standing or attached to bedrock (not speleothems). Photometallic signs are recommended for this purpose. These may be mounted on a suitable timber backing attached to bedrock with expanding bolts, or on free-standing posts. (see Section 5.4).
5.2 Tracks
Regardless of cave access classification, tracks should not be formed to cave entrances unless they have been developed for inspection by the general public, and/or the tracking is to protect other values considered greater than those associated with the caves. In the past tracking to caves has led inevitably to vandalism (graffiti, souveniring, breakage and/or removal of speleothems sub-fossils and minerals) and the consequent downgrading of scientific, aesthetic, and cultural values. However, in areas of high visitor use, it may be desirable to develop tracks to and within one or two safe and robust caves.
Because of the often shallow soil profiles of karst areas/features, and the fragile nature of some ground and outcrop (karren) plant communities, it may be necessary to construct boardwalks.
Before routing and constructing surface tracks, the sensitive nature of ground plant associations which occur in karst locations, and the effects on caves of channelling drainage into dolines or cave entrances, must be considered.
All conservation officers and managers should be aware of the special value and aesthetics of entrance and twilight flora and fauna. To avoid widespread visitor impacts in these sensitive environments, it is often necessary to tape routes, erect barriers, or construct tracks and formed steps.
Tracking inside caves should be avoided as much as possible, except for high use open access caves developed for general public inspection. Consideration should be given to boardwalking muddy areas which lead into decorated areas, and to boardwalking areas with delicate crystal floors and sediments of scientific or habitat importance (e.g. fine sediments for dating or containing subfossils etc). Consideration should also be given to marking delineating routes for the same purposes (see 5.3 below). where possible, boardwalks should be erected over existing worn routes.
5.3 Barriers and Route Marking
Coloured plastic tape and/or rope barriers are recommended to guide users through the more sensitive areas of caves/cave passages. In extreme cases or high use areas, wooden barriers should be considered. Such barriers (tape, ropes, wood etc) can he used to define a walking route or protect specific sites (e.g. crystal floors, flowstone, rimstone and crystal pools, speleothems on cave walls, mud formations, subfossil deposits, fauna habitat, sensitive plant associations in entrance/twilight zones, etc).
As a general rule, taping of routes and taping off of sensitive areas should be sufficient in caves (cave passages used only by recreational cavers. Coloured plastic tape is widely recognised by bona fide recreational cavers as a means of user-control.
5.4 Materials
Non corrodable materials should be used within caves and, where possible, chemically treated, stained, or painted timbers should be avoided (cave fauna are extremely sensitive to toxins, etc).
If there are no viable alternatives to using chemically-treated timber, such timber should be left outside for several months to leach out surplus chemicals, then completely dried before use. Where it is considered that paints and stains are necessary, they should he water based and non-toxic.
For reasons of low physical, biological, and aesthetic impact, soft materials (rope, plastic tape, wood) should be given preference over hard materials (steel, concrete). If steel is necessary, it should be stainless or galvanised. Some timbers contain coloured resin which can stain speleothems such as flowstone and crystal pools. It is, therefore, recommended that outside tests be made before use. Other material worth experimenting with include perspex and the new generation of plastics that do not contain leachates.
5.5 Gates
It must be reiterated that gates are an extreme measure. Gating cave entrances and/or passages often creates an undesirable visual impact and varying levels of physical/biological impacts. These factors must be seriously considered against the benefits of gating before a final decision is made. Only three non-tourist caves on the department's estate are gated at present. Gating proposals must strictly conform to policy (see 2.5.3).
Because each cave/cave passage is unique, a definitive gate design is not possible. Figures 3 - 6 show successful designs and are included as guidelines for gate construction. Before gating proceeds, someone with experience in cave gating should be consulted.
Gates should never be solid, as they need to maintain the meteorological balance of wind, temperature, and humidity. They should always be of the lowest possible visual, physical and biological impact. Measurements between grills should not be less than 200mm x 400mm to allow for the passage of bats, whether bats are recorded or not. These openings are the minimum sufficient for bats but are too small for humans to squeeze through. All gates should have a sign explaining in general terms why they are there and the circumstances under which authorised visits are possible.
Gates can almost always be totally pre-fabricated off site. Because of the likely impacts of constructing on site, this is recommended. To calculate dimensions, hang a plumb-line from the centre of the entrance/passage, the cord of which is marked at approximately 200mm intervals (depending on pipe diameter). Measure the distances left and right of the line at the marked intervals as per Figure 3. The gate can be constructed in separate screw-in components, which are locked in by vertical rods. The gate is then erected on site and attached with expanding bolts. A grill with an inset gate nay have to be erected for large entrances or passages. See Figure 4. Access to small passages may be controlled by a grill alone (see Figure 5). In intermediate cases a combined grill/gate can be constructed (see Figure 6).
5.6 Cleaning and Restoring Caves
It is possible to clean soiled and dirtied areas and features in caves; and it is possible to restore some broken speleothems. The use of the word restoring is, of course, somewhat of a misnomer: caves and speleothems can never be fully restored. Once damaged they are permanently degraded, and nothing can restore them to their original, or even near original, condition.
Cleaning and restoration of caves is a detailed and highly specialised aspect of management. The following notes are intended as a guideline for basic water cleaning and the restoration of broken speleothems. For a more in depth review of this subject managers are referred to Bonwick and Ellis, (1985).
Cleaning speleothems, on a small scale, can be achieved by using buckets of water, scrubbing/nail/tooth brushes, sponges and, or hand operated pumps/sprayers. Obviously care is required nor to damage fragile speleothems, and for this purpose pumps/sprayers with variable pressure and adjustable water outlets are recommended.
It is important that the area to be cleaned can drain freely, otherwise a mud problem may develop.
Cleaning of large scale more robust features such as flowstones and rimstone pools/dams, can be accomplished by using small petrol motor driven pumps such as the 'Wajax'. Considerable care has to be taken with the hoses. Careless use can wipe cut whole areas of speleothems. Use 25mm non-percolating hose in preference to 30mm. Take care with the water jet itself, as extremely high pressures can be easily achieved A variable nozzle (branch) must be used. These nozzles are capable of providing a range of pattern and force from a fine light mist spray to a narrow powerful jet. The mist spray can be used, with care, in moderately fragile situations.
The free drainage of excess water is of considerably greater importance when using motorised high pressure pumps. Also of considerable importance is the production of carbon monoxide and its potential for harm to cave fauna and the operators. Petrol motor pumps should only be used in extreme cases where there is ample ventilation, and then only for short periods.
In situations where the pump can be placed outside the cave, and the feature(s) reached by hoses, there is obviously no problem except possible breakage caused by the hose itself. Another possibility is the use of electric pumps when the source of power (generator/mains) can be located outside the cave and a length of cable run out to the pump. (Note the importance of an isolating transformer when using an electric pump).
Broken speleothems, on an individual or small scale, can often be repaired by cleaning and drying the broken parts with methylated spirits or pure alcohol, and gluing them back together again with fast drying clear compound glues such as 'Araldite'. Eventually calcium carbonate (or other minerals as relevant) may cover the join(s).
For removal of graffiti from cave walls and speleothems, Frith (1976) provides details of a method using a dilute acid spray. This method is included as an Appendix in Wood (1983).
5.7 Monitoring Damage/Change in Caves
Intentional vandalism, major accidental breakages, large scale destruction of crystal floors and/or fauna habitat cause obvious damage to caves. Damage can also be imperceptible and cumulative, resulting in long term degradation (see Wilde, 1981).
If caves are intentionally or accidentally damaged, strategies, policies, classification, and in situ management should be examined for alternatives which reduce the likelihood of re-occurrence. The response to management changes should be monitored.
5.7.1 Photo-Monitoring
The most successful method of monitoring cave condition is photomonitoring. Basically, the technique requires surveyed reference points throughout the cave from which passages, speleothems or vulnerable floor areas can be photographed at regular predetermined intervals. The details and photographs are recorded and kept on a card index system and changes can be assessed by comparative analysis. The system is also useful for recording sedentary fauna such as glowworm larvae. The major problem with photomonitoring is that it is very time consuming and expensive and therefore in some circumstances impractical. Despite this, it is a worthwhile management tool (see bibliography for reference to further information).
5.7.2 Regular Inspection
Readily accessible caves vulnerable to damage and/or subject to access controls should be inspected regularly to detect obvious damage, and to establish frequent contact with users (policing and public relations). If inspections are not regular, damage and misuse can be difficult to detect.
A concession operation can be a good way of managing, controlling and monitoring visitor impacts, while also informing and educating visitors of the benefits of conservation/protection - The General Policy for Recreation/Tourism Concessions on Lands Managed by the Department of Conservation - "Guiding" refers.
5.7.3 Other Monitoring Techniques
Other techniques for monitoring impacts on caves are detailed in Wood (1983), along with relevant references to the literature. Some of these techniques deal with specific areas of impact, such as compaction of floor sediments etc.
6.0 VISITOR SAFETY AND SEARCH AND RESCUE
Only safe "Open Access" caves with no more than minimum hazards should be chosen for general public inspection. As a general rule these should be located in high use areas. Safety barriers, route markings and signs should be installed as required.
Safety of those who pursue caving as a sport is their own responsibility. It must be left to the individual and/or group to decide what is and what is not dangerous.
School and youth groups etc, should be encouraged to use safe caves. Conservation officers and managers are advised to select one or more safe caves within their area for such use (these should also be robust - see 2.5 and 4.2).
The New Zealand Speleological Society has a formalised rescue system which operates under Land Search and Rescue (SAR). Cave rescue requires specials skills and equipment, and should not be undertaken other than through the recognised SAR system, unless of a minor order (see Gallas, 1985).
Conservation officers and managers are advised to personally approach the cave SAR advisers in their respective areas and become well known to them. Cave SAR advisers are appointed by the police on the recommendation of the New Zealand Speleological Society. The list of cave advisers is available either through the police, or the Secretary, New Zealand Speleological Society, PO Box 18, Hamilton. It is reviewed and reprinted annually.
Conservation officers and managers should advise local police and/or cave SAR advisers in the event of a rescue of more than a minor order and/or requiring logistical assistance or extra personnel.
7.0 GLOSSARY
BCRA Grade 5 Survey
A cave survey carried out using a compass, inclinometer, and non-metallic tape readings to be taken to the nearest degree and the nearest 10cm; and sketches and notes to be made on site at the time of survey.
Cavernous Area
Any area containing caves. These may be formed in limestone and marble, or other soluble rock types. Caves and cave features may also be formed in volcanic rock (e.g. lava tubes).
Fossil
Faunal and floral remains or imprints (bones, shells, plant material, etc) embedded in consolidated rocks (limestone's, sandstones, mudstones etc) of relatively old geological age.
Geomorphology
The study of the physical features of the earth's surface and the relationship between these features, and the geological structures beneath.
Speleothem
Stalactites, stalagmites and other secondary mineral deposits formed in caves.
Subfossil
Faunal remains (bones, shells, etc) present in or on unconsolidated sediments (gravel sand, mud, etc) of relatively recent geological age. A shell from a Maori midden is a subfossil.
Syncline
A trough-shaped fold in rock strata.
Tomo
Cave entrance. Commonly used by New Zealand cavers for vertical (shaft) entrances.
Tor
An isolated mass of exposed rock that has been subject to considerable weathering. It often assumes peculiar shapes.
Twilight Flora
Plants which grow in subdued light conditions.
8.0 FURTHER READING
| Karst Geomorphology (including caves): | |
| Jennings, J. N. (1971) | Karst : An Introduction to Systematic Geomorphology, Aust University Press |
| Kermode, L. O. (1966) | Speleology in New Zealand, NZ Speleological Bulletin 3(60), pp 489-536 |
| Sweeting, N.M. (1972) | Karst Landforms, MacMillan, London |
| Warwick, G. T. (1976) | Geomorphology and Caves (Chapter 3), Science of Speleology (eds T. Ford and C. Cullingford), Academic Press, London |
| Cave Minerals: | |
| Hill, C. A.and Forti, P.(1985) | Cave Minerals of the World, National Speleological Press, Alabama, USA |
| White, W. B.(1976) | Cave Minerals and Speleothems (Chapter 8), The Science of Speleology (eds T. Ford and C. Cullingford), Academic Press, London |
| Cave Flora: | |
| Cubbom, B. D. (1976) | Cave Flora (Chapter 11), The Science of Speleology (eds T. Ford and C. Cullingford), Academic Press, London |
| Cave Fauna: | |
| Jefferson, U. T. (1976) | Cave Faunas (Chapter 10), The Science of Speleology (eds T. Ford and C. Cullingford), Academic Press, London |
| May,B. (1971) | Cave Fauna, NZ Speleological Bulletin 4(79), pp 571-576 |
| Millar, I. R. (1981) | Dwellers in the Dark, Forest and Bird 13(10) pp 19-24 |
| Townsend, J.I, (1974) | Life in Caves, NZ Nature Heritage 2, pp 425-432 |
| Resource Monitoring: | |
| Larson, C. V. (1978) | Photography as a Cave Management Tool. Proceedings - National Cave Management Symposium Big Sky, Montana (1977), pp 96-103 |
| Hamilton-Smith, E. (1979) | Plitvice: A Case Study in Karst Management. Proceedings Third Australian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management, Mt Gambier, pp 77-83 |
| Stout, D. L. (1978) | A Photomonitoring System for Horse Thief Cave, Wyoming. Proceedings - National Cave Management Symposium Big Sky, Montana (1977) pp 104-107 |
| Uhl, P.J. (1981) | Photomonitoring as a Management Tool. Proceedings Eighth International Congress of Speleology Vol II (ed B F Beck) Georgia, USA, pp 476-479 |
| Wood, M. (1983) | Cave Wilderness - The Reconciliation of Conservation and Use. Unpub dissertation, Lincoln College, Canterbury |
| Wood, M. (1985) | Wilderness Cave Carrying Capacity. Proceedings Sixth Australasian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management, 1985 pp 218-220 |
| General Reading: | |
| Aley, T. (1972) | Groundwater contamination from sink holes. Caves and Karst - research in Speleology 14(3), Cave Research Associates (California), pp 17-24 |
| Aley, T. (1976) | Caves, cows and carrying capacity. National Speleological Society News 4(7) pp 133-34 |
| Ash, J (1985) | Adventure Caving at Waitomo. Proceedings Sixth Australasian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management, 1985 pp 34-48 |
| Bonwick, J and Ellis, R. (1985) | New Caves for Old - Cleaning, Restoration and Redvelopment of Show Caves. Proceedings Sixth Australasian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management, 1985 pp 134-153 |
| Carter, R. W. (1979) | An approach to interpretive planning for cave use. Proceedings Third Australian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management, Mt Gambier pp 139-146 |
| Caving International Magazine (1980) | C.I. Interview with Tom Aley, Caving International Magazine 9, pp 13-18 |
| Davey, A.G. (1979) | Some Considerations for Systematic Resource Management of Caves and Kart. Proceedings Third Australian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management. Mount Gambier, 1979 pp 7-15 |
| Hawke, D. (1976) | The Waitomo Stream, Waitomo Glowworm Cave, New Zealand. Proceedings 11th Biennial Conference, Australian Speleological Federation. 1976 (ed A. P. Spate) ANU, Canberra pp 140-144 |
| New Zealand Speleological Society | New Zealand Speleological Bulletin (published quarterly) |
| Rautjoki, H. and Millar, I.(1984) | Honeycomb Hill Cave Management Plan - Northwest Nelson State Forest Park. New Zealand Forest Service, Nelson (now Department of Conservation, Westport) |
| Smith, D. et al (1976) | The Hydrology of Limestone Terrains (Chapter 6) in Science of Speleology (eds T. Ford and C. Cullingford). Academic Press, London |
| Waltham, A. C. (1976) | The World of Caves, Orbis Publishing Ltd, London |
| Worboys, G. and Butz, M. (1979) | Principles of Karst Management. Proceedings Third Australian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management. Mt Gambier pp 49-71 |
| Wilde, K. A. (1981) | Caves - The Cave and Karst Resource of New Zealand. Unpublished dissertation, Lincoln College, Canterbury (two volumes) |
| (1981) Puketiti Flower Cave - Proposed Conservation Covenant, Department Lands and Survey Files, Hamilton | |
| (1984) Honeycomb Hill Cave System - Recommendations for Management. New Zealand Forest Service, Nelson | |
| (1985) An Historical Review of Cave and Karst Conservation and Management in New Zealand. Cave Management in Australasia: Proceedings Sixth Australasian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management, Waitomo pp 163-206 | |
| (1986) The Preservation and Management of New Zealand's Cave and Karst Resource. Presented to Geological Society of New Zealand, Conference, 1986 | |
| Williams, P.W. (1975) | Report on the Conservation of Waitomo Caves. NZ Speleological Bulletin 5(93) pp 374-395 |
| Williams, P.W. (1987) | The Significance of Karst in New Zealand National Parks. New Zealand Geographer 43(2) pp 86-94 |
| Wilde, KA. and (1988) Williams P.W. | Environmental Monitoring of karst and caves. Presented to Symposium on Environmental Monitoring in New Zealand, Otago University, 1988 (in press) |
9.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
| Bonwick, J. and Ellis. R (1985) | New Caves for Old - Cleaning, Restoration and Redevelopment of Show Caves. Proceedings Sixth Australasian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management Waitomo 1985 pp 134-153 |
| Cody, A. Wilde, K. A. and Worthy T.(1981) | "A Basis for New Zealand Cave and Karst Management", NZSS Submission to Lands and Survey |
| Davey, A.G. (1979) | Cave Area Management - A Select Bibliography (Draft). Applied Natural Resource Management G.P.O., PO Box 290, Canberra, ACT 2601 |
| Department of Education (1986) | Principals Guide to Education Outside the Classroom - Leadership and Safety Guidelines for Adventure Activities, Education Department, Wellington, p56 |
| Frith, R.S. (1976) | Acid on - Graffiti gone! National Speleological Society News 34(11), p203 |
| Gallas, F. E. (1985) | Land Search and Rescue (1985 Edition). Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand. pp 66-71 |
| Hoeman, E.H. (1980) | Viewpoint. Caving International Magazine 8, p16 |
| Jennings, J.N. (1971) | Karst: An Introduction to Systematic Geomorphology Vol 7. Australian University Press, Canberra |
| Kermode, L. O. (1966) | Speleology in New Zealand. NZ Speleological Bulletin 3(60) pp 489-536 |
| King, Ken and Timmins, Susan (eds) (1984) | Register of Protected Natural Areas in New Zealand. Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington (now Department of Conservation, Wellington) |
| NZ Forest Service, and Lands and Survey(1985) | General Policy for Cave and Karst Management in Areas Managed by the Department of Lands and Survey and the New Zealand Forest Service. Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington (now Department of Conservation, Wellington) |
| NZSS (1985) | The Little Red Cavers Book. New Zealand Speleological Society Information Manual |
| Rautjoki, H and Millar, I (1984) | Honeycomb Hill Cave Management Plan - Northwest Nelson State Forest Park. New Zealand Forest Service, Nelson (now Department of Conservation, Westport) |
| Thode, S (1982) | Opinion on Status, Ownership, Access and Mineral Rights of Caves. Lands and Survey, Hamilton (now Department of Conservation, Hamilton) |
| Wilde, K (1983) | Caves - The Cave and Karst Resource of New Zealand, unpub diss, Lincoln College, Canterbury |
| Wilde, K (1984) | Honeycomb Hill Cave System - Recommendations for Management, New Zealand Forest Service, Nelson |
| Wilde, K (1985) | An Historical Review of Cave and Karst Conservation and Management in New Zealand. Cave Management in Australasia: Proceedings Sixth Australasian Conference on Cave Tourism and Management, Waitomo pp 163-20 |
| Wilde, K (1986) | The Preservation and Management of New Zealand's Cave and Karst Resource. Presented to Geological Society of New Zealand, Conference, 1986 |
| Wood, M (1983) | Cave Wilderness - The Reconciliation of Conservation and Use, unpub dissertation, Lincoln College, Canterbury |