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KARST AND CAVE MANAGEMENT IN THE INDIAN OCEAN REGION

(This paper was originally presented to the International Conference on Indian Ocean Studies, Perth, August 1979. It is included here in order to make it more readily available to those specifically interested in cave management.)

INTRODUCTION

Karst landforms occur in rocks in which erosion by solution is a major geomorphological determinant. The major and most familiar example is limestone, which is soluble in weakly acid ground water. This acidity results from solution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, interstitial carbon dioxide in the soil and acids derived from soil humus and rotting vegetation. The specific landforms found in any one karst area are influenced by a wide range of variables, including climate, vegetation, soil characteristics, lithology and geological structure. Karst is characterised by limited surface drainage, most water penetrating the rock to flow through caves or other subterranean drainage channels. Although caves are the best known feature of such areas, a wide range of distinctive surface landforms also occur, including dolines, blind valleys, poljes, collapse gorges and relief forms such as tower karst. A comprehensive review of karst geomorphology, which draws upon examples from the Indian Ocean region, is provided in Jennings (1971).

Caves are also formed by other geologic and geomorphic processes. Flow movements in molten lava of the pahoehoe type often result in extensive tunnel systems remaining in the solidified lava beds, as has occurred in Kenya (Simons, 1974, 1976). Sea erosion along coasts, tectonic movements and wind erosion may all result in caves, although those formed by wind erosion are perhaps more properly referred to as rock shelters. Differential erosion in some soft rocks or sediments may also give rise to caves and other landforms which mimic karst and are generally termed pseudokarst (Grimes, 1975).

The purpose of this paper is to draw attention to the values of karst and caves and to the special land management requirements of such areas. This is a topic of special significance in the Indian Ocean region, as countries bordering the region contain:

These and many other karst areas are of international importance. Their continued integrity is dependent upon the development of adequate land management practices.

VALUES OF CAVES AND KARST

Caves are, and always have been, features of great interest to man. The aesthetic-scenic qualities of many caves and of karst landscapes such as that of Southern China are well known. Moreover, many caves have traditionally been vested with religious values and significance (e.g. Lamb, 1965). Prehistoric man also used caves as shelters (e.g. Harrisson, 1958) and often decorated them with our earliest known art (e.g. Wright, 1971).

Today, probably the most widespread specific use of caves and karst is as a resource for tourism and recreation. Among the many caves serving as tourist attractions in the region, one might cite Cango (Walker, 1970) and Sterkfontein (Cooke, 1969) in South Africa, Mangapwani in Tanzania (Halliday, 1974)., the Kanchanaburi Caves in Thailand (Soma Nimit Co., nd.), Batu caves in Malaysia (Soepadmo & Ho, 1971) and the caves at Yanchep, Yallingup, Margaret River and Augusta in Western Australia. Given optimal management, such caves can provide a major input to the local economy.

To date, the most economically successful developments have been in other regions. One can cite, for instance, the Jeita Caves of Lebanon (Karkabi, 1963), where a two million pounds (sterling) investment resulted in an equal revenue surplus at the end of four years (Skinner, 1972). The magnificent karst national park at Plitvice in Yugoslavia provides the economic support for a local population of some 3,000 people engaged in park management, hotel and other related services, and primary production to supply the needs of visitors (Vidakovic, 1977). Even with the relatively low-key development and management which tends to prevail within the region, tourism within karst areas can be a significant source of revenue.

The lack of surface water on the exposed rock of any karst region leads to an appearance of aridity, but many such areas provide a natural underground reservoir from which water is discharged into the interstitial or surrounding lands. Many karst valleys and poljes are extremely fertile as a result, while an understanding of karst hydrology can lead to the provision of water in otherwise infertile areas. Thus, mapping of the subterranean water system of the Tisu River in China enabled a quadrupling of the arable lands within the river basin (Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region, 1976).

Other economic benefits result from the gathering of swiftlet (Collocalia) nests for food (Medway, 1957; Wilford, 1964) mining of bat guano or guano-derived minerals and of heavy metal ores contained in cave sediments (Jones, 1965, Wilford, 1964) and hunting of bats for food (Dwyer, 1974). Less directly, but of no lesser importance, caves are an essential environment for many species of bats and these exercise an important control over populations of nocturnal insects (Yalden & Morris 1975).

Caves and karst also provide a vital resource for research purposes. Many scientific disciplines have benefited from cave-based studies. Thus, much of our knowledge of our ancestors and the environment in which they lived depends upon studies such as those at Sterkfontein (Cooke, 1969), Niah (Harrison, 1958) and various Australian sites (e.g. Dorch & Merrilees, 1972).

Caves and karst also contribute most significantly to our knowledge and understanding of long-run trends in climate (Lowry & Jennings, 1974), patterns of eustatic change and the evolution of present landforms (Jennings, 1971). However, when we compare the limited research knowledge which has arisen from karst studies in the Indian Ocean region with that of more extensively researched regions (Ford & Cullingford, 1976), it is clear that the karst of this region is a virtually untapped resource from a research perspective. Even in the case of the Nullarbor plain, which is probably one of the most thoroughly studied karst areas of the region, field studies during the last year have yielded a series of important new discoveries, some of which throw into question the conclusions drawn from previously available data.

KARST AND CAVES IN THE INDIAN OCEAN REGION

Although karst areas (and other caves) occur throughout most of the Indian Ocean hinterlands, they are generally small discrete areas, probably comprising less than 4% of the total land surface (Balazs, 1977a). The only extensive single area is that of South East Asia, extending from Southern China through Vietnam, Laos, Thailand to Southern Burma (Balazs, 1977b). However, although the limestone of the New Guinea and Indonesian archipelago comprise a large number of relatively small and discrete areas, recent investigations indicate that they contain some of the world's largest caves, thus supporting the prediction of Balazs (1977b).

The relatively small karst and cave areas of most countries in the region mean that caves and karst are a scarce resource in the region, and this fact, taken in conjunction with the values already outlined above, emphasises the need for adequate land management of such areas.

Thus, on the Eastern seaboard, small karst areas are known from all the African nations concerned, although only those of South Africa have been extensively investigated (by the South African Speleological Association). The most remarkable caves are probably the extensive lava tunnels of Kenya (Simons, 1974, 1976, and many other papers). including Leviathan cave, the most extensive yet explored anywhere in the world. In the Middle Eastern countries one again finds relatively small limestone areas, yet these give rise to the largest karst springs of the world, including Manavgat in Turkey with flows recorded of up to 1000 m3/sec. (Chabert, 1977).

Although the great Himalayan ranges of the Indian sub-continent include massive limestone beds, karstic phenomena are few and the only known caves are small. The extensive karst of south-east Asia already referred to above remains virtually uninvestigated except in southern China. Here the beauty of the landscape is famous, both from classical Chinese paintings and from modern photographs (Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, 1976), while the only region of which maps are published suggests that this region may well prove to contain the world's largest cave systems (Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region, 1976). The Malayan peninsula again has only scattered and small outcrops of limestone, but these are already established as being of great interest (Bullock, 1965).

Sarawak deserves special attention as its many small outcrops of limestone have been surprisingly well documented (Wilford, 1964), have provided the venue for a great deal of research (e.g. Harrison, 1958, and many other papers) and have yielded caves of immense size (Brook & Waltham, 1978). Further limestone areas occur throughout Indonesia (Balazs, 1968) and New Guinea. Again, large and spectacular cave systems occur in the latter island, including those of the Star Mountains area (Brook, 1976) and the Atea Kanada system (James & Montgomery, 1976) which has now been surveyed for over 30km by a recent expedition.

Caves and karst are scarce on the Australian continent (Jennings, 1975) in spite of the extensive and thoroughly researched Nullarbor Plain (Lowry and Jennings, 1974; Dunkley & Wigley, 1967). However, the phenomenon of syngenetic karst was first recognised and described from the Indian Ocean shoreline of Western Australia (Bastian, 1964; Jennings, 1968).

It also seems likely that pseudokarst caves in laterite are more numerous and better developed in Australia than any other continent, even though little-studied at present (Lefroy & Lake, 1972; Hamilton-Smith, 1977). At the same time, the relatively famous cave paintings of Australia actually occur in wind-blown rock shelters rather than true caves (Playford, 1969; Brandl, 1973) although more primitive art of considerable interest does occur in true caves (Hallam, 1971; Wright, 1971).

Similarly, the temple caves of southern Asia include various caves used as Buddhist (Lam, 1965) or Hindu (Soepadmo & Ho, 1971) temples. However, many so-called temple caves are largely artificially excavated by man, as at Ajanta (Husain, 1956), Tun-Huang (Gray, 1959), Yunkang (Committee in Charge of Cultural Relics, 1977) and Bamiyan (Levi, 1972).

ISSUES IN LAND MANAGEMENT

Two basic issues underlie any considerations in management of karst or cave areas. The first is that karst is dependent upon a dynamic inter-relationship between land and water resources. Any change in the hydrologic regime may have far-reaching impacts upon the land system, while changes in the land may similarly impact upon the hydrologic regime. The second is that many of the values of caves and karst are based upon non-renewable and often extremely fragile resources (Aley, 1976; O'Brien & Watson, 1977) thus, any deliberate change in or destruction of these resources should not be undertaken without adequate consideration of the potential consequences. Various examples are given below to demonstrate the consequences of poor management and to describe current work towards better management practices.

Changes in the hydrologic regime can lead to extensive collapse of land (Aley et al, 1972; Quinlan, 1971) or to other impacts upon the integrity of karst systems (McClane, 1971). The most disastrous example to date occurred in South Africa, where some 200 sinkholes formed as a result of groundwater pumping, leading to the loss of 34 lives and a cost of over 35 million dollars (Jennings, 1966; Quinlan, 1971). Conversely, forest clearing and other land-based changes can have drastic effects upon the hydrologic regime. One example resulted in marked and rapid deterioration of the famous Waitomo Caves of New Zealand (Williams et al, 1975). A lack of understanding of the nature of karst systems has also led to the complete failure of costly dam construction projects, as at Konya in Turkey (Jennings, 1971).

The underground drainage of karst areas is commonly carried through caves and other activities, so that the groundwater is not subject to the filtering process which occurs in other types of terrain. The groundwater is therefore readily subject to pollution, either viral, bacteriological or chemical (Aley, 1972; Aley et al, 1972). A recent dramatic example occurred in Missouri and Arkansas where 759 cases of gastroenteritis over a wide geographic area resulted from leakage of sewage from a pond into the karst aquifer (Phillips et al, 1978).

Closer to the Indian Ocean region, Waterhouse (1973) has demonstrated serious pollution problems in the karst aquifer of South-eastern South Australia. Two discrete aquifers exist in this region, separated from each other by an impervious bed. Industrial and domestic wastes have been discharged into the upper aquifer by way of drains, bores and caves for over 100 years and this has resulted in both localised bacteriological contamination and widespread pollution with nitrates. Nitrates are toxic to infants, and concentrations as high as ten times the safe limit occur in bores within and near the city of Mount Gambier. Few bores exist where safe water supplies can now be obtained, and even the nearby lake from which the reticulated water supply of the city is drawn in potentially threatened (Waterhouse, n.d.).

We have already referred to the extent to which caves and karst provide an important resource for tourism purposes. With a few exceptions, development and management has been on a low key and often ad hoc basis. As a result, economic gains from such tourism are not optimised, and the quality of the resource is often seriously degraded (Lefevre & Laporte, 1969; Wilmut, 1972; de Lavaur, 1977; Rieder, 1977). Some Australian discussions of this problem and attempts to provide a more adequate level of planning include those by Hamilton-Smith, Champion and Robinson (1974), Hamilton-Smith et al (1978), Davey et al (1978), and Watson (1978).

Planning for more adequate management of karst areas is almost inevitably multi-disciplinary in character, particularly when overall land management issues are being examined. One example is the recent study of the Nullarbor plain by Davey et al (1978) which drew upon data from such fields as geology, geomorphology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, palaeontology, climatology, archaeology, anthropology, agricultural sciences, tourism studies and economics. This example highlights the complexity of issues which may be confronted in karst areas.

In summary, the costs of mismanagement of karst areas may be high, while the intangible loss resulting from destruction of non-renewable resources may in time prove equally serious. Adequate management requires an awareness of the special issues involved and may well demand inter-disciplinary studies of considerable complexity.

KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT FOR CAVE AND KARST MANAGEMENT

Those responsible for land management programmes will rarely be able, except in such areas as Yugoslavia or southern China where karst is the predominant land form, to develop adequate expertise in karst studies, because the relatively scarce karst areas will be only one of many issues demanding their attention. However, more than in any other area of land management, a great pool of expertise has been developed amongst persons who are essentially amateurs - the speleologists or cave explorers. Although many are able to bring their professional discipline to bear upon cave and karst studies, their interest in caves and karst is usually in the nature of a personal leisure pursuit. Not surprisingly, the major conferences on karst management (e.g. Tivadar, 1975; National Cave Management Symposium, 1975, 1976, 1977; Hamilton-Smith, 1976; Middleton, 1977) have been largely organised by speleologists. Moreover, in Australia the Australian Speleological Federation has played a major role in management planning for karst areas, working in conjunction with or on behalf of governmental land management agencies (Porter, 1979), and has recently commenced publication of an occasional newsletter on karst management.

Few other Indian Ocean nations have a well developed speleological organisation with accumulated experience and expertise in karst management, and with the exception of South Africa, speleological activity is largely carried out by either temporary residents or visiting expeditions. We believe it is important for all countries having cave and karst areas to develop indigenous expertise in the management of these areas. Moreover, it should be possible to develop ways in which the high level of such expertise in Australia can be more adequately shared with others as a first step to fostering the development of indigenous expertise in Indian Ocean nations.

This might include exchange of publications and personnel together with educational and training opportunities which might range from post-doctoral studies to short courses for middle-level managers. sharing of this kind would represent an extension of the current cooperation between the speleologists of the non-government sector and the managerial or educational agencies of the governmental sector. It would be of great value, both to Australia and to other participating countries.

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