OUTDOOR RECREATION, PLANNING AND CAVE TOURISM IN AUSTRALIA
At the outset it is necessary to define some of the terms we will need to consider in this paper. The first one of these is the term "Leisure". In almost all societies it is universally accepted that man shall work to provide himself with the necessary food or to obtain income to allow him to procure forms of subsistence produced by others. In addition, such activities as eating, sleeping and personal hygiene are necessary to keep the body functioning adequately. When these demands of work and physical wellbeing have been taken care of, man may freely devote his time to other things and leisure may be defined as discretionary time to be used as one chooses. (Clawson & Knetsch, 1969.) The term recreational has a different meaning to the term 'leisure'.
Recreation involves activities that are engaged in during leisure time. One aspect of recreation is tourism. By tourism is meant travel away from the home environment in leisure time, in order to discover and enjoy different environments (C.C. 1970). Tourism is not merely the act of visiting, but includes other factors as well, as I will outline later.
The phenomenon of leisure is not a recent development because it has been known since the time of the Ancient Egyptians. However, at that time it was restricted to privileged social classes, but since then it has become a more widely experienced part of everyday life and has been affected at different times to varying extent by such things as population characteristics, political and social organisations, advances in science and technology, levels of education, influences of culture and community life and the geographical environment. Probably the most indirect contributors to increase leisure in the present century are industrialisation and urbanisation, but these two factors alone have not been solely responsible for greater participation in recreation. It has been aided by increased population, rising real income and consequent change in the affluence of the community at large. In particular, the motor vehicle has had a dramatic effect on the life of millions throughout the world and this has led Toffler (1973:84) to describe it as the 'technological incarnation of spatial freedom'.
Tourism has been significantly advanced through the use of the motor car and other forms of travel and is so widespread today that there is a tendency for it to be taken for granted. On reflection, however, it becomes apparent that tourism unlike leisure, is a relatively modern occurrence related amongst other things to an increased awareness of other places.
Any recreation system has three core elements — people, activities in which they participate, and opportunities available to them. Opportunities depend on the location of resources relative to population since a number of outdoor activities are really restricted to places where necessary resources are available. Mobility of population is, therefore, a key factor in developing the potential usage of many recreation areas, a factor which was recognised by Clawson (1969:28) in his model of the recreational experience. Clawson proposed five phases of the model, ANTICIPATION is generally pleasurable, of variable duration, and sometimes idealistic and when a positive decision is reached the experience proceeds to the next phase, TRAVEL TO the site. Though sometimes costly in terms of time and money, this is an important phase since it brings the user and the recreation resource together. The outcome of travel is arrival ON SITE. This may involve one or a number of sites and of the time taken for the total experience this phase may occupy a disproportionate amount when compared with the enjoyment it brings to the user. The on site experience is usually the prime object of the journey having been the centre of planning from the outset. The TRAVEL BACK phase is unlikely to be a repeat of the earlier phase since the recreationists have changed though the route and end point may not have. RECOLLECTION and sharing of impressions is the culmination of the total experience and frequently the starting point for anticipating another.
One of the characteristic features of the population distribution in Australia is that there is concentration of people in urban areas. In consequence, the demand for recreation resources comes mainly from city dwellers and most of these seek the use of areas in the country for recreational pursuits. The travel phases of the recreational experience are, therefore, rather important. The accompanying graphs are worthwhile studying. Figure 1 indicates the growth of motor car and stationwagon registrations between 1955 and 1971. The trend is obviously upward at a rather rapid rate. Figure 2 shows traffic flow on the south coast of New South Wales on a typical Sunday compared with a typical weekday. You will notice that the Sunday volume of traffic far exceeds the week day volume, resulting from the fact that a large percentage of recreational travel takes place at the weekend. The type of travel at weekends is mainly associated with day trips and therefore exhibits different characteristics to the type of travel undertaken by people travelling to work or on extended vacations.
Many of the resources used for recreation are natural resources. Most of these are irreplaceable, therefore it is necessary that management decisions are made which will conserve natural environments for future generations to enjoy. Some recreational resources have a local or regional significance, others have a national significance. In consequence, the type of visitor drawn to these two different types of resources tends to be different. By this I mean that the overseas visitor is less likely to visit the recreational resource which offers only local or regional significance. From what I have said you can thus conclude that any study involving recreation involves studying people as well as the resources.
Because tourism and outdoor recreation involves people and space a study of these activities is rather complex. unfortunately. much of the research that has been done in the field of tourism in Australia has been concerned with head counting and the ability of people to pay.
Figures 1 & 2
There have been very few attempts to understand the motivation of the users of recreational facilities or to determine patterns of movement. Virtually nothing is known about how people spend their leisure time, almost no provision has been made for the future use of the natural environment for recreational purposes, there has been no effort to measure the demand for various kinds of recreational activities. One point that should be borne in mind is that recreational behaviour is not solely an economic activity, nor are its effects primarily economic. Wolfe (1967) believes that economic studies are restricted in their approach, being primarily concerned with questions of money — with pricing, with allocation of scarce resources and with cost-benefit analyses of various kinds. In spite of the economic impact of spending on recreation, recreation is more than a commodity which can be measured in monetary terms and moreover, the placing of statistical values on intangible recreation benefits is questionable.
In Australia, priority for government spending on recreation is rather low, but the position is not aided because of a general lack of awareness within the community at large of the importance of making provision for the growing demand for recreational space. Most people have, however, experienced the frustration of traffic delays caused by congestion on our highways at weekends. Many are finding their favourite camping, picnicking or fishing spots becoming more popular, more crowded. Others are having to make reservations for vacation accommodation 12 months or more in advance. The difficulty of finding a quiet spot on the beach is a frequent occurrence, nature reserves are being visited by increasing numbers of people, boating is more popular and caravan sales are booming. Yet these are seen as isolated problems or temporary growing pains, rather than as factors leading to a potential crisis in outdoor recreation (numerous press reports of the past few weeks are encouraging for they suggest that the recently created Commonwealth Department of Tourism and Recreation is about to embark on a programme to assess the seriousness of the situation).
In 1959, Marion Clawson drew the attention of Americans to such a crisis which they faced. He forecast that by 2000 AD through a combination of such factors as growing population, rising family incomes and increases in leisure time and travel, the demand for outdoor recreation in America would exceed tenfold the 1959 figure and there is every reason to expect that in this country a similar situation will exist. In the USA, Great Britain and Canada planning for recreation has been recognised as a community responsibility and government departments have been established to coordinate research, to undertake studies to determine supply of resources available for recreation and to measure the demand for those resources. Already the results of much of the research are known.
In most countries today, planning is an important responsibility for those concerned with defence, public administration and the provision of community services and in most instances, it is basic to private and commercial developments. Planning, which has as its goal the manipulation of the manmade environment, has long been recognised as an essential tool for directing the growth and development of cities and other urban areas in order that provision is made for consideration of all types of competing land uses and so that the urban environment will remain a desirable place of habitation for the citizens who reside there.
As a kind of human activity exemplified by spatial behaviour, recreation is deserving of attention from planners. Recreation requires resources which are limited in quantity and extent, it involves movement through space, and it involves people, and in order to achieve optimum benefits planning is essential.
As long ago as 740 B.C. the prophet Isaiah warned the Israelites:
Woe to them who join house to house, who add field to field, until there is no more room, and you are made to dwell alone in the midst of the land. (Isaiah 5:8)
His advice, unfortunately, went unheeded, and although the essence of his statement is as relevant in modern Australian society as it was in his own day, the reaction is the same — a lack of concern by the populace at large for the implications of courses of action before study action is effected.
Several writers have drawn attention to the fact that population and resources are plainly inseparable (Price, 1955; Taylor, 1967). Already in Australia, competition for scarce coastal resources is evident, various parts of the environment are threatened by pressures of congestion, overcrowding and disfigurement, and whilst the public is becoming increasingly aware of the impending danger of continued deterioration in environmental quality, they are less aware of the diminution of resources which it will be necessary to conserve if present trends of increasing leisure time, affluence and mobility are maintained. When this awareness develops, the need for planning will be obvious for Sessoms (1964:33) asserts:
Recreation and planning are inseparably intertwined in their concern with space, time, and human relationships.
In anticipation of these developments, at least four courses of action will be necessary. Firstly, there will need to be an assessment of recreational demand and an evaluation of available resources. Secondly, an examination of alternative land uses will have to be carried out and priorities will have to be established. Thirdly, the appropriate planning system will have to be secured at all levels of government to implement the policies and ensure the proper development and conservation of the environment as agreed on by interested parties. Fourthly, research will have to be conducted at all stages to ascertain that planning is based on factual information.
It is with the first and fourth phases that those interested in cave tourism should become actively involved. The location of many caves is known, but only a few are opened to the general public. A thorough investigation should be made to assess the worth of all known caves for tourist potential and the total number of visitors who could be expected to visit those caves (if all were opened) should be calculated. It is then an easy matter to estimate when caves will need to be opened for public use and how long it will be before all are used to capacity.
Visitor figures for caves already opened for inspection will provide an indication of increasing use, but in addition, research is needed to determine:
- the percentage of the total population currently visiting caves,
- the desirability or otherwise of promoting cave tourism and, the methods of promotion,
- the types of facilities visitors expect to find when they visit caves,
- the carrying capacity of each cave, i.e. the number of visitors per hour who can be safely conducted through the area without detriment to the cave environment or the natural features within the cave,
- how to cope with the motor vehicle in the immediate vicinity of the cave or caves.
SUMMARY
Outdoor recreation planning is a complex activity with each step of the process being interdependent. The problem is not made easier because of the changing fashions and tastes of the users, the growth of population and advances in scientific technology. It is, nevertheless, essential that society should effectively manage its scarce resources for optimum benefit.
In Australia, where living standards are rising, and hours of work are becoming shorter, outdoor recreation pursuits offer great potential for growth. The number of motor vehicles in the country is doubling each ten years (Figure 1) and the mobility of the population is increasing. Attractive coastal areas and unique inland scenic areas have always existed, but the motor car has made these places more accessible with the result that the area in which leisure activities can be practised has been extended. Nevertheless, for day visitors, time and distance constraints limit the area of opportunities for recreation. On the basis of data gathered on the South Coast, one can calculate the approximate limits of the area within which the majority of residents of Sydney, Wollongong and Newcastle are likely to travel for a day outing. The area which comprises only 4% of the State's total area contains 76% of the total population, 240 kilometres of surfing beaches and 1720 square kilometres of national parks and reserves. As the greatest pressures on the environment are concentrated where there is access to motor vehicles, and as much of the national park and reserve area is not readily accessible, it is reasonable to expect that the coast and scenic areas within a day's travel of the main populated areas will be subjected to more intensive recreational use in the years ahead than at present.
It is evident then that the importance and vulnerability of the coastline will ensure that pressure will continue for its development for a variety of purposes, that roads leading to coastal and other recreational areas will become increasingly incapable of dealing with traffic volumes, and that the environment will continue to deteriorate. In a democratic political situation such as ours, the failure of the population to concern itself with matters of national importance and to exercise political power through the ballot box has been widely commented upon. It is also well known that citizens will take action when they themselves become personally involved in situations and crises. One such crisis will occur with respect to outdoor recreation in the near future so patience will have action as its reward.
REFERENCES
Clawson, N. "The Crisis in Outdoor Recreation", American Forests, March/April, 1959.
Clawson, N.S., Knetsch, J.L. Economics of Outdoor Recreation, John Hopkins, Baltimore, 1969.
Countryside Commission Countryside Recreation Glossary, London 1970
Price E.T. "Values and Concepts in Conservation", Annals of The Association of American Geographers, 45, 1955, 65-84.
Sessoms, H.D. "An Analysis of Selected Variables affecting Outdoor Recreation Patterns", Social Forces, 42, 1968, 112-115.
Taylor, C.D. Techniques in the Evaluation of Recreational Use, Dept of Indian Affairs & Northern Development, Ottawa, 1967.
Toffler, A. Future Shock, Pan, London 1972
Wolfe, R.I. "The Geography of Outdoor Recreation. A Dynamic Approach", in G.J. Tomkins (Ed.) Geographic Perspectives: Some North Western Viewpoints, B.C. Geography Series No.8, Vancouver, 1967.